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JOHN CABOT UNIVERSITY

COURSE CODE: "RL 221-2"
COURSE NAME: "The Popes of Rome: History of the Catholic Church"
SEMESTER & YEAR: Summer Session I 2024
SYLLABUS

INSTRUCTOR: Christopher Korten
EMAIL: [email protected]
 HOURS: MTWTH 1:30 PM 3:20 PM
TOTAL NO. OF CONTACT HOURS: 45
CREDITS: 3
PREREQUISITES:
OFFICE HOURS:
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
The history of the Catholic church is essentially intertwined with the history of Western Civilization over the past 2,000 years. The aspirations and struggles of Christendom constitute the fabric of the Christian tradition as it unfolds throughout time. This course represents an historical survey of the Church from its primitive beginnings in Jerusalem (c. 33 A.D.) to the Pontificate of John Paul II (1920-2005). The development of the course will trace the major events, ideas and people that went into the shaping of the Western Church, without ignoring the fundamental importance and influence of the doctrine of Jesus Christ regarding the institution he founded.
SUMMARY OF COURSE CONTENT:
Course Overview
The Roman Catholic Popes represent an organization that has endured for the more 2,000 years. We will chart this history from their (papal) perspective, drawing attention to the most important historical events. Key pronunciations and policies, key activities and events are the focus of this class. The structure of the course will be taught chronologically while integrating three thematic elements to provide a holistic understanding of the subject. 
The three recurring themes are the following:
1. Responses to Modernity and Secularism: Exploring how the Church has responded to the challenges of modernity, including scientific advancements, secularism, and changing social norms.
2. The Evolution of Papal Authority: Tracing the development of the Pope's role and influence from the early Church to the modern era, including changes in political, spiritual, and administrative authority.
3. Church and State Dynamics: Examining the relationship between the Catholic Church and various political powers across different eras, including periods of harmony and conflict.

Key Terms: The terms "popes," "papacy," and "pontificate" are all related to the leadership and administration of the Roman Catholic Church, but they refer to different aspects:
1. Popes: This term refers to the individual leaders of the Roman Catholic Church. Each pope serves as the bishop of Rome and the spiritual leader of Catholics worldwide. The pope is considered the successor to Saint Peter, whom Catholics believe was appointed by Jesus as the head of his disciples.
2. Papacy: This term refers to the institution and the office of the pope. The papacy encompasses the entire system of ecclesiastical governance led by the pope, including the administration of the Holy See and the Roman Curia. It represents the continuous line of popes that has existed since the time of Saint Peter.
3. Pontificate: This term specifically refers to the reign or tenure of a particular pope. For example, the pontificate of Pope Francis began in March 2013 and continues as long as he remains in office. The term can be used to describe the duration of a pope's service as well as the policies and actions taken during that time.


Other terms:
1. Antipope - A person who, in opposition to the one who is generally seen as the legitimately elected Pope, makes a significantly accepted competing claim to be the Pope.
2. Apostolic Succession - The uninterrupted transmission of spiritual authority from the Apostles through successive popes and bishops, taught by the Roman Catholic Church but understood variously in other Christian denominations.
3. College of Cardinals - A body of senior church officials who are appointed by the Pope and ordinarily ordained bishops. They advise the Pope and, upon his death or resignation, elect his successor.
4. Conclave - A gathering of the College of Cardinals to elect a new Pope.
5. Curia - The administrative bodies of the Holy See, through which the Roman Pontiff conducts the affairs of the universal Catholic Church.
6. Ecumenical Council - A conference of ecclesiastical dignitaries and theological experts convened to discuss and settle matters of Church doctrine and practice.
7. Encyclical - A letter sent by the Pope to Catholic clergy or believers for the purpose of guiding them in specific areas. It usually addresses issues of faith, morals, or discipline within the Church.
8. Papal Bull - An official letter or charter issued by the Pope, named after the bulla, or wax seal, that was used to authenticate the document.
9. Papal Infallibility - A doctrine of the Catholic Church which states that the Pope is preserved from the possibility of error when in the exercise of his office he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church.
10. Papal States - Territories in the Italian Peninsula under the direct sovereign rule of the pope from the 8th century until 1870.
11. Papal Tiara - A crown that was worn by popes of the Catholic Church from as early as the 8th century to the mid-20th century, symbolizing papal authority.
12. Sede Vacante - A term used in the Catholic Church to denote the vacancy of the episcopal see when the diocese or archdiocese has no bishop. In terms of the papacy, it refers to the period between the death or resignation of a Pope and the election of his successor.
13. Vatican City - An independent city-state enclaved within Rome, Italy, that serves as the spiritual and administrative center of the Roman Catholic Church and the residence of the Pope.

How you are graded:
A written exam at the end of the course (Friday, June 21st).
Course Structure

1. The Early Church (c. 33-312)
• The Church in Jerusalem and the Spread of Christianity
• Persecutions and Martyrdoms
• Theological Developments and Early Church Fathers
• Historical Jesus
• Origins of the Papacy 

2. Popes and the Roman Empire (312-476)
• Question: Evaluate the impact of Constantine's conversion to Christianity on the role and influence of the papacy in the Roman Empire.
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 23-34.
• Document: "Edict of Milan" (313 AD), signed by Constantine.
• Relation: Marks the legalization of Christianity in the Roman Empire and sets the stage for the increased prominence of the papacy. The Council of Nicaea and the Nicene Creed

3. Leo the Great (440-461)
• Question: How did Pope Leo the Great contribute to the definition and expansion of the papal authority during his papacy?
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 41-49.
• Document: "Tome of Leo" (Letter to Flavian).
• Relation: Articulates the doctrine of the dual nature of Christ, asserting papal authority in doctrinal disputes.

4. Pope Gregory I (Gregory the Great),r. 590-604: 
• Question: How did Gregory the Great's reforms of church liturgy and administration impact the role of the papacy in medieval Europe?
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 59-72
• Document: "The Book of Pastoral Rule" by Gregory the Great.
• Relation: Outlines the responsibilities of clergy, impacting Church administration and pastoral care.
5. Pope Gregory VII, r. 1073-1085
• Question: Discuss the significance of the Walk to Canossa and its impact on the relationship between the papacy and secular rulers.
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 116-128
• Document: Dictatus Papae.
• Relation: Asserts the pope’s authority over the church and secular rulers, central to understanding Gregory VII's policies and the Walk to Canossa.

6. Pope Urban II (r. 1088-1099)
• Question: Analyze Pope Urban II’s role in initiating the First Crusade and its long-term effects on Christian-Muslim relations.
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 128-136.
• Document: Speech at the Council of Clermont, 1095, as recorded by Fulcher of Chartres.
• Relation: Initiates the First Crusade, setting the tone for Christian-Muslim relations and illustrating papal influence.

7. Pope Innocent III (1198-1216)
• Question: How did Pope Innocent III use his papal authority to influence political and religious life in Europe during his papacy?
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 136-162.
• Document: Letters by Pope Innocent III.
• Relation: Offers insights into his governance, influence over the Fourth Crusade, and involvement with the Franciscan and Dominican orders.

8. Pope Leo X (r. 1513-1521)
• Question: What was Pope Leo X's role in the early stages of the Protestant Reformation, and how did his actions influence the trajectory of the Catholic Church?
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 196-207.
• Document: Bull "Exsurge Domine" (1520).  [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/luther/exsurgedomine.html] 
• Relation: Condemns Martin Luther’s teachings, pivotal in the early Protestant Reformation.
9. Counter Reformation Popes, 1540s & 1550s
• Question: How did the foundation of the Jesuits reflect the goals of the Counter-Reformation under the papacy?
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 208-229
• Document: Founding documents of the Jesuit Order by Ignatius of Loyola. [https://jesuitportal.bc.edu/research/documents/1550_formula/]
• Relation: Illustrates the Counter-Reformation efforts and the strategic role of the Jesuits.

11. Pope Gregory XV (r. 1621-1623)
• Question: What role did the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith play in the Catholic Church’s missionary activities during the papacy of Gregory XV?
• Background Reading: “The Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide (1622-1922)”, Peter Guilday, The Catholic Historical Review , Jan., 1921, Vol. 6, No. 4 (Jan., 1921), pp. 478-481. [PDF]
• Document: Bull "Aeterni Patris" establishing the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith.
• Relation: Fundamental for understanding missionary strategies and the centralization of evangelization efforts during his papacy.

12. Pope Benedict XIV (r. 1740-1758)
• Question: In what ways did Benedict XIV demonstrate his skills as an administrator during his papacy?
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 230-246.
• Document: Benedict XIV's encyclicals and bulls
• Relation: Reflects his administrative skills and reforms in Church law, showcasing his governance abilities.

13. Pope Clement XIV (r. 1769-1774) 
• Question: Why did Clement XIV suppress the Jesuits, and what were the consequences of this action for the Church?
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 247-260.
• Document: Bull "Dominus ac Redemptor" (Suppressing the Jesuits).
• Relation: Key to understanding his controversial decision and its impact on the Church, especially on global missionary work and education.

14. French Revolutionary Popes (Pius VI and Pius VII):
• Question: Discuss the challenges faced by the papacy during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era, focusing on the Concordat of 1801.
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 247-260.
• Document: Concordat of 1801 between Napoleon and Pius VII [https://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/diplomatic/c_concordat.html]
• Relation: Shows the reestablishment and limitations of the Church’s role in French society post-Revolution.

15. Pope Gregory XVI (r. 1831-1846)
• Question: Evaluate the major challenges and controversies of Gregory XVI's papacy, particularly in the context of political and social unrest in Europe.
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 260-285
• Document: Encyclical "Mirari Vos"
• Relation: Addresses liberalism and modern challenges, reflecting his conservative stance.

16. Pope Pius IX (r. 1846-1878)
• Question: Discuss the significance of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception and the declaration of papal infallibility under Pope Pius IX.
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 286-304.
• Document: "Syllabus Errorum" (Syllabus of Errors) and documents from the First Vatican Council.
• Relation: Highlights Pius IX's doctrinal stances, including the definition of papal infallibility.

17. Pope Pius XII (r. 1939-1958)
• Question: Examine the controversies surrounding Pope Pius XII’s relationship with Nazi Germany and his role during World War II.
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 332-354
• Document: Encyclical "Summi Pontificatus".
• Relation: Outlines his views on the war and moral theology, relevant to discussions on his wartime role.

18. Pope John XXIII (r. 1958-1963)
• Question: How did Pope John XXIII’s calling of the Second Vatican Council reflect his approach to addressing modern challenges facing the Church?
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 354-368
• Document: Encyclical "Pacem in Terris".
• Relation: Articulates his vision for peace and justice, central to the ethos of the Second Vatican Council.

19. Pope John Paul II (r. 1978-2005)
• Question: Analyze the role of Pope John Paul II in the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, particularly in Poland.
• Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 369-385.
• Document: Encyclical Redemptor Hominis (1979)
• Relation: This encyclical sets the stage for his confrontation with communism; it emphasizes the dignity of the human person and a personal encounter with Christ.

20. Pope Francis (r. 2013-present)
• Question: How has Pope Francis addressed modern global issues such as the conflict in Ukraine, and what impact has this had on the perception of the papal role in the world?
• Document: Various speeches and encyclicals on peace, social justice, and the environment.
• Relation: Demonstrates his active engagement in international diplomacy and social issues, reinforcing the Church's role in global humanitarian efforts.




 
LEARNING OUTCOMES:

  1. Understanding of Papal Evolution: Students will gain a comprehensive understanding of the historical development and transformation of the Papal office from the early Church to the modern era, focusing on how the role and influence of the Pope has evolved in terms of political, spiritual, and administrative authority.

  2.  

  3. Insight into Church and State Dynamics: Learners will be able to analyze the fluctuating relationship between the Catholic Church and various political powers across different eras, identifying periods of both harmony and conflict and understanding the implications of these dynamics on global historical developments.

  4.  

  5. Knowledge of Responses to Modernity: Students will explore and assess how the Catholic Church has responded to the challenges of modernity, including scientific advancements, secularism, and changes in social norms, and evaluate the Church’s strategies in maintaining or reforming its doctrines and practices.

  6.  

  7. Familiarity with Key Papal Terms and Concepts: Students will become familiar with essential terms such as "popes," "papacy," "pontificate," and other related terms, understanding their specific meanings and implications within the context of Catholic Church leadership and administration.

  8.  

  9. Critical Analysis of Historical Documents: Students will learn to critically analyze key historical documents and texts that have shaped the papacy, such as papal bulls, encyclicals, and doctrinal statements, understanding their historical context and impact on the Church’s development and external relations.

  10.  

  11. Appreciation of Theological and Ecclesiastical Developments: Learners will trace the major theological and ecclesiastical developments within the Catholic Church as influenced by different popes, understanding the theological underpinnings of pivotal doctrines and decrees.

  12.  

  13. Evaluation of Papal Impact on Contemporary Issues: Students will evaluate the role of recent popes in addressing contemporary global issues, including human rights, environmental challenges, and international conflicts, assessing the effectiveness and global perception of the papal influence in modern geopolitics.
TEXTBOOK:
NONE
REQUIRED RESERVED READING:
NONE

RECOMMENDED RESERVED READING:
Book TitleAuthorPublisherISBN numberLibrary Call NumberComments
Saints & SinnersEamon Duffy Yale13: 978-0-300-11597-0  
“The Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide (1622-1922)”, Peter Guilday, The Catholic Historical Review , Jan., 1921, Vol. 6, No. 4 (Jan., 1921), pp. 478-481. Peter GuildayCatholic University   
“The Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide (1622-1922)”Peter GuildayCatholic University  An Open Source PDF article
The Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide (1622-1922)Peter GuildayCatholic University  An Open Source PDF article
The Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide (1622 to 1922)Peter GuildayCatholic University  An Open Source PDF article
The Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide (1622 to 1922)Peter GuildayCatholic University  An Open Source PDF article
GRADING POLICY
-ASSESSMENT METHODS:
AssignmentGuidelinesWeight
Final ExamStudents will be asked to write a short written exam during the last class of the semester. Attendance will also be factored in.50

-ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
AWork of this quality directly addresses the question or problem raised and provides a coherent argument displaying an extensive knowledge of relevant information or content. This type of work demonstrates the ability to critically evaluate concepts and theory and has an element of novelty and originality. There is clear evidence of a significant amount of reading beyond that required for the course.
BThis is highly competent level of performance and directly addresses the question or problem raised.There is a demonstration of some ability to critically evaluatetheory and concepts and relate them to practice. Discussions reflect the student’s own arguments and are not simply a repetition of standard lecture andreference material. The work does not suffer from any major errors or omissions and provides evidence of reading beyond the required assignments.
CThis is an acceptable level of performance and provides answers that are clear but limited, reflecting the information offered in the lectures and reference readings.
DThis level of performances demonstrates that the student lacks a coherent grasp of the material.Important information is omitted and irrelevant points included.In effect, the student has barely done enough to persuade the instructor that s/he should not fail.
FThis work fails to show any knowledge or understanding of the issues raised in the question. Most of the material in the answer is irrelevant.
-ATTENDANCE REQUIREMENTS:
ATTENDANCE REQUIREMENTS AND EXAMINATION POLICY
You cannot make-up a major exam (midterm or final) without the permission of the Dean’s Office. The Dean’s Office will grant such permission only when the absence was caused by a serious impediment, such as a documented illness, hospitalization or death in the immediate family (in which you must attend the funeral) or other situations of similar gravity. Absences due to other meaningful conflicts, such as job interviews, family celebrations, travel difficulties, student misunderstandings or personal convenience, will not be excused. Students who will be absent from a major exam must notify the Dean’s Office prior to that exam. Absences from class due to the observance of a religious holiday will normally be excused. Individual students who will have to miss class to observe a religious holiday should notify the instructor by the end of the Add/Drop period to make prior arrangements for making up any work that will be missed. The final exam period runs until ____________
ACADEMIC HONESTY
As stated in the university catalog, any student who commits an act of academic dishonesty will receive a failing grade on the work in which the dishonesty occurred. In addition, acts of academic dishonesty, irrespective of the weight of the assignment, may result in the student receiving a failing grade in the course. Instances of academic dishonesty will be reported to the Dean of Academic Affairs. A student who is reported twice for academic dishonesty is subject to summary dismissal from the University. In such a case, the Academic Council will then make a recommendation to the President, who will make the final decision.
STUDENTS WITH LEARNING OR OTHER DISABILITIES
John Cabot University does not discriminate on the basis of disability or handicap. Students with approved accommodations must inform their professors at the beginning of the term. Please see the website for the complete policy.
SCHEDULE

Course Structure

 

1.     The Early Church (c. 33-312)

    • The Church in Jerusalem and the Spread of Christianity
    • Persecutions and Martyrdoms
    • Theological Developments and Early Church Fathers
    • Historical Jesus
    • Origins of the Papacy

 

  1. Popes and the Roman Empire (312-476)
    • Question: Evaluate the impact of Constantine's conversion to Christianity on the role and influence of the papacy in the Roman Empire.
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 23-34.
    • Document: "Edict of Milan" (313 AD), signed by Constantine.

·        Relation: Marks the legalization of Christianity in the Roman Empire and sets the stage for the increased prominence of the papacy. The Council of Nicaea and the Nicene Creed

 

  1. Leo the Great (440-461)
    • Question: How did Pope Leo the Great contribute to the definition and expansion of the papal authority during his papacy?
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 41-49.
    • Document: "Tome of Leo" (Letter to Flavian).
    • Relation: Articulates the doctrine of the dual nature of Christ, asserting papal authority in doctrinal disputes.

 

  1. Pope Gregory I (Gregory the Great),r. 590-604:
    • Question: How did Gregory the Great's reforms of church liturgy and administration impact the role of the papacy in medieval Europe?
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 59-72
    • Document: "The Book of Pastoral Rule" by Gregory the Great.
    • Relation: Outlines the responsibilities of clergy, impacting Church administration and pastoral care.
  2. Pope Gregory VII, r. 1073-1085
    • Question: Discuss the significance of the Walk to Canossa and its impact on the relationship between the papacy and secular rulers.
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 116-128
    • Document: Dictatus Papae.
    • Relation: Asserts the pope’s authority over the church and secular rulers, central to understanding Gregory VII's policies and the Walk to Canossa.

 

  1. Pope Urban II (r. 1088-1099)
    • Question: Analyze Pope Urban II’s role in initiating the First Crusade and its long-term effects on Christian-Muslim relations.
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 128-136.
    • Document: Speech at the Council of Clermont, 1095, as recorded by Fulcher of Chartres.
    • Relation: Initiates the First Crusade, setting the tone for Christian-Muslim relations and illustrating papal influence.

 

  1. Pope Innocent III (1198-1216)
    • Question: How did Pope Innocent III use his papal authority to influence political and religious life in Europe during his papacy?
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 136-162.
    • Document: Letters by Pope Innocent III.
    • Relation: Offers insights into his governance, influence over the Fourth Crusade, and involvement with the Franciscan and Dominican orders.

 

  1. Pope Leo X (r. 1513-1521)
    • Question: What was Pope Leo X's role in the early stages of the Protestant Reformation, and how did his actions influence the trajectory of the Catholic Church?
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 196-207.
    • Document: Bull "Exsurge Domine" (1520).  [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/luther/exsurgedomine.html]
    • Relation: Condemns Martin Luther’s teachings, pivotal in the early Protestant Reformation.
  2. Counter Reformation Popes, 1540s & 1550s
    • Question: How did the foundation of the Jesuits reflect the goals of the Counter-Reformation under the papacy?
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 208-229
    • Document: Founding documents of the Jesuit Order by Ignatius of Loyola. [https://jesuitportal.bc.edu/research/documents/1550_formula/]
    • Relation: Illustrates the Counter-Reformation efforts and the strategic role of the Jesuits.

 

  1. Pope Gregory XV (r. 1621-1623)
    • Question: What role did the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith play in the Catholic Church’s missionary activities during the papacy of Gregory XV?
    • Background Reading: “The Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide (1622-1922)”, Peter Guilday, The Catholic Historical Review , Jan., 1921, Vol. 6, No. 4 (Jan., 1921), pp. 478-481. [PDF]
    • Document: Bull "Aeterni Patris" establishing the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith.
    • Relation: Fundamental for understanding missionary strategies and the centralization of evangelization efforts during his papacy.

 

  1. Pope Benedict XIV (r. 1740-1758)
    • Question: In what ways did Benedict XIV demonstrate his skills as an administrator during his papacy?
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 230-246.
    • Document: Benedict XIV's encyclicals and bulls
    • Relation: Reflects his administrative skills and reforms in Church law, showcasing his governance abilities.

 

  1. Pope Clement XIV (r. 1769-1774)
    • Question: Why did Clement XIV suppress the Jesuits, and what were the consequences of this action for the Church?
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 247-260.
    • Document: Bull "Dominus ac Redemptor" (Suppressing the Jesuits).
    • Relation: Key to understanding his controversial decision and its impact on the Church, especially on global missionary work and education.

 

  1. French Revolutionary Popes (Pius VI and Pius VII):
    • Question: Discuss the challenges faced by the papacy during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era, focusing on the Concordat of 1801.
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 247-260.
    • Document: Concordat of 1801 between Napoleon and Pius VII [https://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/diplomatic/c_concordat.html]
    • Relation: Shows the reestablishment and limitations of the Church’s role in French society post-Revolution.

 

  1. Pope Gregory XVI (r. 1831-1846)
    • Question: Evaluate the major challenges and controversies of Gregory XVI's papacy, particularly in the context of political and social unrest in Europe.
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 260-285
    • Document: Encyclical "Mirari Vos"
    • Relation: Addresses liberalism and modern challenges, reflecting his conservative stance.

 

  1. Pope Pius IX (r. 1846-1878)
    • Question: Discuss the significance of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception and the declaration of papal infallibility under Pope Pius IX.
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 286-304.
    • Document: "Syllabus Errorum" (Syllabus of Errors) and documents from the First Vatican Council.
    • Relation: Highlights Pius IX's doctrinal stances, including the definition of papal infallibility.

 

  1. Pope Pius XII (r. 1939-1958)
    • Question: Examine the controversies surrounding Pope Pius XII’s relationship with Nazi Germany and his role during World War II.
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 332-354
    • Document: Encyclical "Summi Pontificatus".
    • Relation: Outlines his views on the war and moral theology, relevant to discussions on his wartime role.

 

  1. Pope John XXIII (r. 1958-1963)
    • Question: How did Pope John XXIII’s calling of the Second Vatican Council reflect his approach to addressing modern challenges facing the Church?
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 354-368
    • Document: Encyclical "Pacem in Terris".
    • Relation: Articulates his vision for peace and justice, central to the ethos of the Second Vatican Council.

 

  1. Pope John Paul II (r. 1978-2005)
    • Question: Analyze the role of Pope John Paul II in the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, particularly in Poland.
    • Background Reading: Eamon Duffy, “Saints & Sinners”, pp. 369-385.
    • Document: Encyclical Redemptor Hominis (1979)
    • Relation: This encyclical sets the stage for his confrontation with communism; it emphasizes the dignity of the human person and a personal encounter with Christ.

 

  1. Pope Francis (r. 2013-present)
    • Question: How has Pope Francis addressed modern global issues such as the conflict in Ukraine, and what impact has this had on the perception of the papal role in the world?
    • Document: Various speeches and encyclicals on peace, social justice, and the environment.
    • Relation: Demonstrates his active engagement in international diplomacy and social issues, reinforcing the Church's role in global humanitarian efforts.