Week 1. The Venetian Gazette and the Italian Avvisi. These publications from early modern Italy were once regarded as the precursors of modern newspapers. However, they focused on laws and ordinances and were intended to remind citizens of their civic duties and the payment of taxes. Historians believe that they represent a primitive format of “vertical communication” rather than the birth of journalism.
Week 2. L’Ami du Peuple. During the French revolution Jean-Paul Marat edited a political newspaper to give a voice to the sans-culottes. Editorials and local reports bring to light the initiatives of leaders, followers, and critics of the revolutionary left in the most radical stage of the revolution. Scholars now argue that the L’Ami du Peuple was the first and most successful model of political journalism: in European countries influenced by the French revolution, L’Ami du Peuple became the standard model of political agitation, an example of unmediated communication between revolutionary leaders and their followers.
Week 3. Karl Marx and the Communist press. Following the publication of the Communist Manifesto in 1848, working class journals spread throughout Europe. By the close of the nineteenth century, as trade unions and political parties began to play a central role in many European nations, some Socialist newspapers (Avanti!, The People, Vorwärts, etc.) reached millions of readers and potential voters. As a result, a new socially-oriented journalism emerged. Detailed reports on the living conditions of the working classes appeared throughout Europe; child labor laws came to the forefront of parliamentary debates; and the goal of universal adult male suffrage spread to virtually all nations.
Week 4. The London Times and the printing revolution. The London Times gradually acquired a broad and influential readership, as technological advancements, coupled with substantial investments, allowed for a morning daily edition of the paper and the transmission of reports from all regions of the British empire. At the close of the century the Times set a new world standard for speed and accuracy in journalism. Although its editorials remained conservative, the Times also gave voice to unconventional journalists such as Nobel peace prize winner Norman Angell, author of The Great Illusion, a celebrated pamphlet on the insanity of imperialism and modern war.
Week 5. The French press and the Dreyfus affaire. As Captain Dreyfus was convicted of treason and Emile Zola fought for his release from prison, French and European newspapers engaged in a bitter controversy over the “search for truth” and the “protection of national interests.” Millions of readers became involved in the dispute. As literacy rates increased throughout Europe, the press acquired a decisive role in civil society and began affecting electoral behavior. Historians argue that during the controversy over the Dreyfus case, for the first time in European history intellectuals became involved in the setting of moral and political standards in public affairs, and thereafter became regular contributors to newspapers and party periodicals.
Week 6. War and censorship. At the onset of war in 1914 newspapers in Europe and elsewhere were subject to military censorship and pressure to support the war effort. Many influential newspapers became mere instruments of political propaganda, while journalists came to be regarded as “soldiers on the home front.” Some historians have argued that this was a social experiment in “totalitarian rule.” Documents and personal memoires reveal the detailed mechanisms of censorship in each nation and the often self-imposed language of nationalism among journalists and war correspondents.
Week 7. The fascist media and the cult of the Duce. Italian Fascism enacted legislation designed to curtail freedom of the press and silence opposition newspapers. In spite of the substantial resources allocated to promote fascist propaganda and control radio broadcastings, many scholars argue that Mussolini’s media failed to win the hearts and minds of the Italian people. In the last years of his rule Mussolini resorted to police informants to learn about the attitude of the Italian people and promote popular support for the regime. In the end, Mussolini admitted, the efforts of his government and massive propaganda proved largely ineffective.
Week 8: Review and midterm exam
Week 9. The Psychological Warfare Branch. In the aftermath of WWII Allied authorities argued that in Europe, after the fall of dictatorial regimes, civil society, rather than political parties and public institutions, should support a new, free journalism. For nearly a decade two distinctive visions of journalism (and democracy) confronted each other. One was centered upon parliaments, political parties and state-sponsored media; the other was based on a multifaceted information system largely in private hands.
Week 10. The age of television. The advent of television, both public and private, transformed mass culture and influenced information networks. In Europe and other parts of the world, a variety of legislative measures and precautions were initially taken to regulate television broadcasting and assign specific “educational tasks” to each channel. This diffidence reportedly impaired the growth of some information networks and prevented the diversification of television programming. Some nations, among them Italy, delayed the introduction of color television for fear of a “technological brainwashing” of the public.
Week 11. CNN and the satellite revolution. In 1980 the establishment of an all-news network with a satellite connection to the entire globe revolutionized news broadcasting. Entrepreneurial skills, technology, and a staff of first-class reporters introduced new standards in the journalistic profession and triggered worldwide competition for quality and reliability. A number of new satellite networks developed in virtually all region of the world. As a result, an unprecedented acceleration and diversification in the transmission of news occurred systemwide.
Week 12. The media in the Middle East and Africa. Over time, although influenced by Western models, media from the Middle East to sub-Saharan Africa developed distinctive features and adopted effective communication strategies. Readings here will include studies of Israel, Egypt, and South Africa and will focus on the topics of conflict, international aid, and the democratization process.
Week 13. Asia and Latin America. As indicated by Reporters without Borders, in recent years journalism in China, Argentina, Venezuela, and Mexico has faced extraordinary challenges. Economic, political, and social unrest still threaten freedom of the press in areas where journalists may truly become an “endangered species.” The internet has also come under pressure, as shown by the Google-China controversy. The debate over freedom of expression, reporters’ safety, the protection of privacy, and censorship will be analyzed at the national and international levels.
Week 14. Constructive journalism. First introduced by Danish reporter Cathrine Gyldensted and directly derived from social and clinical psychology, constructive journalism has recently gained visibility and is now spreading worldwide. It is a solution-oriented style of reporting which rejects traditional conflict-focused stories. Readings and video recordings discuss reportages from Syria, the Netherlands, and the United States, suggesting that constructive journalism may represent a viable solution to current issues faced by most international media system and their narrative strategies.
Week 15. Review and Final exam