The course begins with the study of the social and economic crisis of the post WWI years. Were Italians fascinated by the charismatic figure of Benito Mussolini? Or did they embrace the new political ideology of Fascism? In the 1930s Mussolini’s regime lost popular support; opposition to discriminatory laws against Jews and then Vatican hostility to Mussolini’s foreign policy paved the way to the eventual collapse of Fascism in 1943. Then, in the post WWII years,Italy experienced an unprecedented economic growth and an unrivalled cultural renaissance which historians have called “the miracle". However, social unrest, political violence and corruption scandals eventually endangered the stability of democratic institutions and led to the creation of a "Second Republic". The course analyzes patterns of change and continuity in Italian history, discusses the most distinctive features of the nation’s past, and describes the makeup of Italian political and intellectual elites. In doing so, the course uses essays, novels, films, works of art and architecture, personal memoires,a nd, most importantly, biographies.

There are three books to buy:

Richard J.B. Bosworth, Mussolini, Bloomsbury, any edition.
Paul Ginsborg, Contemporary Italy (1943-1980), Penguin Books, any edition.
Ignazio Silone, Bread and wine, Penguin Books, any edition.

All other readings and class material will be distributed in class or made available on Moodle.

Through this course students will learn about the major phases of Italian political history in the 20^thcentury, from the rise of Mussolini’s dictatorship to the recent crisis of political parties. Students will thus become familiar with Italy's governing institutions, electoral laws, administrative and economic infrastructures, and academic-intellectual circles and learn about the transformation of language and popular cultures. Particular attention will be devoted to the role of the media from the years of Fascist censorship to the reestablishment of freedom of the press and broadcasting, and to the historical analysis of terms used in contemporary politics such as "nationalism", "sovranism" and "national identity". Students will thus acquire valuable tools for understanding the present state of Italian society and its lively political debates as well as developing their historiographical skills and interpretation and evaluation of primary and secondary sources and their advanced research, reading, critical thinking, and written and oral communication skills.

Week 1: January 22-24

The Vittoriano.The imposing monument in the center of Rome was originally erected to commemorate King Victor Emmanuel II and celebrate Risorgimento. However, in the following years the Vittoriano became popular as a tribute to the many thousands who lost their life in the trenches of World War I. The course begins with the study of the postwar years and the social, economic, and political context that precipitated the rise of Fascism.

Week 2: January 29-31

Rebels and dreamers.Acting on the orders of Soviet Russia, in January 1921 a group of young Italian revolutionaries met in the city of Livorno and established the Italian Communist Party. Lectures and readings will focus on two leaders of PCI, Palmiro Togliatti and Antonio Gramsci. Although they would would later become adversaries, both left a lasting legacy in Italian political and intellectual life.  

Week 3: February 5-7

Maria Montessori. These classes study the most prominent of all Italian pedagogists. What were Montessori’s early theories and experiences in Italy? How did Montessori and her associates gain the support of influential intellectuals as well as of Fascist public institutions? Readings analyze the making of the Montessori educational model and its worldwide success, and then investigate Mussolini’s abrupt change of attitude towards the revolutionary pedagogical “metodo".

Week 4: February 12-14

The fall of democracy. Did Mussolini build a “Fascist state”? Readings for these classes focus on the reforms carried out in the administrative, judiciary and penal systems. In 1924 Giacomo Matteotti, a prominent leader of the Socialist opposition, was assassinated and, shortly thereafter, new laws were passed that banned political parties. The class discusses the rise of Mussolini’s dictatorship and the attempt to transform Italian political institutions into a totalitarian regime.

Week 5: February 19-21 

The Italian Empire. Ignoring diplomatic warnings and threats of economic sanctions, in 1935 Mussolini ordered Italy’s army to invade Ethiopia.In a few months, the Duce claimed he had established an empire. This class examines official government documents and newspaper reports from the African battlefields. It also studies private letters and confidential reports showing the disappointment of many Fascists who took part in the conflict, but became outraged by its brutality and the use of illegal chemical weapons.

Week 6: February 26-28

Hitler’s official visit to Italy. In May 1938, Mussolini invited the German Führer to visit Italy. This class studies footage of the gatherings and ceremonies held in Rome, Naples and Florence and examines the text of the discriminatory laws against Jews which were approved following Hitler’s return to Berlin. Particular attention is paid to the Pope’s refusal to meet in Rome with the German dictator and the subsequent crisis between the Italian government and the Holy See. 

Week 7:March 5-7 

Italy at war. During WWII theItalian military was involved in various theaters of combat, particularly the Balkans, North Africa, Ethiopia,and Soviet Russia. When did public opinion realize that defeat was inevitable? Who was to blame for the catastrophe? Support toforMussolini turned quickly to hostility. Secret police files and personal diaries reveal the change of attitude of many Italians and their growing hope for a quick military defeat.

Spring Break

Week 8: March 19-21

The age of recovery. Italy’sTrent’anni di gloria (thirty years of glory) began in late 1940s as talented film directors, playwrights, musicians, designers, and architects gained worldwide recognition. However, the true miracle was the fast-paced growth of the nation’s economic system and the improved standards of living, in spite of a persistent gap between the north and the south. Readings and class discussions will explore the effects and the shortcomings of Italy’s miraculous rebirth through the eyes of the Italian press and foreign correspondents.

Week 9: March 26-28

The old and the new media. In the aftermath of WWII, the Psychological Warfare Branch of the U.S. Army criticized the Italian media for their inability or unwillingness to become “modern". Reportedly, old habits acquired in the Fascist era prevented the establishment of a truly free press. Indeed, Italy maintained a State monopoly over radio and television transmissions – a system which remained unchanged through the 1980s. The course studies how this “one-system-network” functioned and how newspapers and periodicals adapted to new technologies and expanding markets.

Week 10. April 2-4

Foreign policies.Italy joined NATO and actively promoted European treaties of mutual cooperation. Although the country’s international stand was clear,  Italy’s governments often pursued policies, particularly regarding oil and energy supplies, that became a serious concern to friends and allies. Readings, lectures, and footage from television archives focus on the initiatives of ENI’s president Enrico Mattei – and his apparently accidental death in 1962.

Week 11: April 9-11

The “K” factor. The PCI became the largest communist party in Western Europe and a major opposition force in the Italian Parliament. However, the PCI failed to embody a viable alternative to Italy’s center-based coalitions. Secretary Berlinguer introduced “Eurocommunism” as a solution to this problem; while characterizing the history and the future of Western society as different from the Soviet model, he also called for a European “cooperative democracy". Readings examine the response of intellectual elites, trade unions, and other political parties to Berlinguer’s “post-communist” proposals. 

Week 12: April 16-18

The Italian “red scare”.In the 1970s the Red Brigades, a terrorist organization initially based in Rome and large urban areas of northern Italy, assassinated dozens of individuals, among them politicians, journalists, police officers, local administrators,and alleged secret service informants. In 1978 the Red Brigades also kidnapped and executed Aldo Moro, a former Prime minister and president of the Christian Democratic party. A decade of violence ended in the mid-1980s with the apprehension of most Red Brigades members or their voluntary surrender to police. Interviews, RB documents, judicial transcripts, and television reports illustrate the depth of a crisis that threatened to destabilize Italy’s democratic system.

Week 13: April 23-25 (& make-up day Friday 26)

The Vatican from John XXIII to Francis. The Second Ecumenical Council  of 1962-5 confirmed the universal role of the Holy See and also redefined the Vatican’s relations with Italy. Readings and documents outline the transformations of the Catholic Church in the postwar years and assess their impact on Italian political society and culture. Readings and lectures also highlight moments of tension, such as the 1974 referendum on divorce and the case of Emanuela Orlandi, the young Vatican citizen who disappeared mysteriously in 1983.

Week 14:  April 30-May 2

Citizen Berlusconi. How did Silvio Berlusconi acquire a vast and enthusiastic following in such a short time? How did his new party, Forza Italia, gain a prominent position in Italian parliamentary politics so quickly? And how did Berlusconi’s media companies break the Italian State monopoly on television broadcasting? Readings and class discussions will analyze Berlusconi’s meteoric rise to power and analyze two decades of electoral competition, conflicts and scandals. Television broadcasts also illustrate the impact of Mani pulite (Clean hands), the large scale judicial investigation that brought down some of the largest Italian political parties and opened the way to the "Second Republic".   

May 6-10: Final exam